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What
are the unique characteristics of Buddhism? I would like to
introduce you to a few of them.
I.
The First Characteristic: Karma
Karma
is a fundamental Buddhist teaching. Among the Buddhist doctrines,
this is the most important one, and, at the same time, it is also
the most difficult and the most easily misunderstood. Karma is a
Sanskrit term which means action or deed. Any physical, verbal, or
mental action performed with intention can be called karma. In other
words, karma can be explained as any moral or immoral volition, or
all volitional actions, responses, or results.
Before
we talk about karma, we need to understand that body, speech, and
mind are the three masters of karma—they carry out the actions or
deeds that constitute karma. Examples of karma performed by the body
are killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. Lying, frivolous talk,
slander, and harsh speech are examples of karma performed by speech.
Examples of karma performed by the mind include greed, hatred, and
delusion. In fact, karma refers not only to "bad" karma.
One's happiness as well as sorrow in life is determined by karma
from one's body, speech and mind. Let us talk about the types of
karma.
Karma
can be categorized based on the characteristics of one's
actions—wholesome karma, unwholesome karma, and neither wholesome
nor unwholesome karma. Wholesome karma is in accordance with
morality and is beneficial to others. Unwholesome karma is any
action that harms others. Any action that cannot be defined as good
or bad (for example, any action that is without any conscious
intention) is called neither wholesome nor unwholesome karma.
Since
karma is the response of volition, the seeds of wholesome and
unwholesome karma performed by volition are stored in the alaya-vijnana,
the "storehouse consciousness." These seeds will manifest
themselves when the right conditions arise. The manifestation of
these seeds is the fruit of karma. Karma that causes suffering is
called evil karma which results in rebirth in the three evil realms
of suffering. Karma that causes happiness is called blessed karma
which results in rebirth in the human or celestial realm. Those who
have attained meditative concentration reap rebirth in the realms of
form and formlessness and abide in samadhi (meditative
concentration). The karma of these beings is called motionless
karma.
Karma
can also be categorized according to the time in which it ripens.
There are three such categories: karma that ripens in this life,
karma that ripens in the next life, and karma that ripens in future
lives.
Karma
that ripens in this life means that the fruit of the action done in
this life will ripen in this very life; karma that ripens in the
next life means that the fruit of the action done in this life will
ripen in the immediate next life; and karma that ripens in future
lives means that the fruit of present actions will ripen after two
or more lives. This indicates that from the viewpoint of time, may
it be the past, present, or future, the effect of any action will
not be lost. The fruit will ripen according to the karma performed.
Good begets good and evil begets evil. No one is exempt from the Law
of Cause and Effect. Those who are familiar with agriculture know
that some plants can be harvested in just one year, some in two
years, and others in several years.
There
are those who do not fully understand the Law of Cause and Effect.
They see that some people who have been kind and have done wholesome
deeds experience much suffering and misfortune. On the other hand,
they observe other people who have committed unwholesome deeds but
nonetheless lead a comfortable and free life. So they conclude that
the Law of Cause and Effect does not apply at all. Some even say,
"This is the twentieth century. Why still believe in
superstitions like cause and effect?" However, they do not
realize that the existence of everything in this world arises from
and is dependent on the Law of Cause and Effect. The relationship
between cause and effect is a very complicated one, but it works in
a very orderly and precise manner.
There
are two reasons why the fruit of karma will ripen at different
times. One reason is the strength of the cause; it will determine
the time that the effect appears. For example, if a melon and a
peach seed are planted at the same time, the melon seed will grow
and produce fruit in the same year; however, it will take several
years before the peach tree that grew from the seed can produce
fruit. The second reason the fruit of karma may ripen at different
times is that the strength of the conditions can be strong or weak.
If all necessary conditions are present, the fruit will ripen
earlier, whereas if the necessary conditions are not present, the
ripening will take longer. Either way, there is a saying in
Buddhism, "Good begets good; evil begets evil. All causes will
give rise to results; it is just a matter of time."
The
Law of Cause and Effect is certain. A particular cause will
inevitably give rise to a particular effect: no mistakes will ever
be made. The reason a good person suffers in this life is because
the evil seeds that he has planted in the past are ripening now.
Therefore, he must suffer at this time. Although he may have done
many good deeds in this life, the power of the seeds of these good
deeds may be too weak to ripen during this life. He may have to wait
until his next or future lives to enjoy the effects of these good
deeds. In contrast, an evil person may have done many evil deeds in
this life, yet he is enjoying a good life. This is because the good
seeds that he has planted in his previous life or lives are ripening
now. So he is enjoying the fruit of his prior good deeds now. The
evil seeds that he has planted during this life will ripen in his
future lives.
Therefore,
we can conclude that the Law of Cause and Effect has two essential
points. First, causes and effects are indestructible. Once any deeds
are performed, regardless whether good or bad, the seeds of these
deeds will be stored in the alaya-vijnana and will be manifested
when the right conditions are present. Second, good and evil deeds
or actions will not cancel out each other. The evil seeds that have
already been planted will give rise to evil fruit. They will not be
cancelled out by doing good deeds. The only thing we can do is to do
more good deeds, to accumulate more positive conditions. Then the
gravity of the fruit of our evil deeds will be lightened; or, if
many good deeds are accumulated, the good fruit will ripen quickly
and the evil conditions will be weakened. Think of it in this way:
you have a glass of salt water, which is similar to evil seeds. If a
lot of fresh water, which stands for good deeds, is added to the
salt water, the fresh water will dilute the salt water, making it
less salty. Therefore, it is very important to do good deeds and
accumulate positive conditions.
Some
people have incorrect expectations of the Law of Cause and Effect.
For example, some Buddhists say, "I have practiced
vegetarianism all my life. What have I got to show for it? I am now
bankrupt!" Others say, "I have been a Buddhist for a long
time. I recite the Buddha's name and prostrate myself to the Buddha,
and yet my health has not improved." Some even say, "I
practice vegetarianism and recite the Buddha's name, but my children
are unfilial and unmotivated."
These
people do not understand cause and effect. They do not know that
morality is governed by one kind of cause and effect, one's
financial condition is governed by another type of cause and effect,
and one's physical health is governed by the kind of cause and
effect related to physical health. If you desire good physical
health, you need to pay attention to what you eat, get an adequate
amount of exercise, and maintain habits of cleanliness. If you do
not pay attention to these things and simply believe that by
reciting Amitabha Buddha's name will give you good health, then you
have a distorted understanding of the principle of cause and effect.
If you want to be financially successful, you must practice sound
business management. You cannot expect to become wealthy just
because you observe vegetarianism. This again is distorted
understanding. If you do not care for your children properly, if you
do not teach them or educate them, you cannot expect them to turn
out to be filial and to become productive members of society. This
again is distorted thinking. Cause and effect will not make any
errors. Even if we were to use a modern electronic calculator or
computer to add up the good and evil deeds committed by a person, it
would not be as accurate as the Law of Cause and Effect.
Karmic
effect that manifests itself at the time of death can be divided
into weighty karma, habitual karma, and recollective karma. Weighty
karma means that if a person has performed both good and evil karma,
whichever is heavier will manifest first. Habitual karma will
manifest itself according to one's daily habits. The Pure Land
School teaches people to recite Amitabha Buddha's name, so that it
will become a habit and that at the time of passing away, the Pure
Land practitioner will recite Amitabha Buddha's name and thus will
be reborn in the Pure Land. Recollective karma means that one's
karma is manifested according to one's memory. For example, when a
person is on the street and comes to a crossroad, he may be at a
loss as to which direction he should go. All of a sudden he
remembers that he has a friend on the street that leads west, so he
continues in a westerly direction. Thus, when a person passes away,
he may be guided by his recollective karma in a similar fashion.
Whether
a person is reborn as a human is certainly determined by his or her
own karma. That we are born as human beings is the result of our
impelling karma. In other words, impelling karma is the strong force
that impels us to be reborn as human beings instead of being reborn
as dogs or horses. Though we are all human beings, we nonetheless
have individual differences such as being intelligent or foolish,
virtuous or unruly, rich or poor, born into noble or humble
circumstances. These variations are due to differences in the past
karma performed by the individual during his or her past life. Those
who have given in their previous lives will become rich, while those
who have killed others will have a short life span as a result. The
karma that "fills in the details" of our rebirths is
called completing karma.
Another
category of karma is collective karma and individual karma. The
karma performed by a single person will give rise to a certain
force, the karma performed by hundreds and thousands of people will
give rise to a greater force, while the karma performed by millions
and billions of people will give rise to an even greater force. This
force is called collective karma. That is, the collective behavior
of many beings will produce a very strong force which determines the
course of life, history, and the universe. Individual karma differs
from collective karma in that it only affects the individual. For
example, natural disasters such as famine and earthquakes can be
experienced by everyone living in the disaster area. The disasters
are manifested due to the collective karma performed by the people
living in disaster areas. However, during the same disaster each
person may be affected differently because of his/her own individual
karma.
Although
there are many categories of and respective names of karma,
nonetheless in the unique teaching of Buddhism, all actions and
deeds performed by a person's body, speech, and mind are karma.
Thus, a person's behavior can determine his or her life. One is
responsible for all the good or bad karmic effects produced by one's
own actions. Karmic effects are not bestowed on someone by deities
or an Almighty, nor is there the King Yama of hell to inflict
punishment. From this doctrine, we can glean several principles that
govern karma:
A.
Karma is self-created; it is not created by divine power.
Everything
good or evil is created by ourselves and is not arranged or bestowed
upon us by deities.
B.
Karma means equal opportunity; there is no favoritism.
Under
the Law of Cause and Effect, every being enjoys equality in
harvesting his own karmic fruit. No one receives special treatment.
Good begets good and evil begets evil. Someone might say that under
the law of our country everyone enjoys equality as well; however,
there are still people who enjoy special privileges under the legal
system. The Law of Cause and Effect is absolutely fair; no one
enjoys any special privileges at all.
A
Japanese prime minister, after being sentenced, left five words:
"wrong, reason, law, power, heaven." What this means is
that "wrong" cannot win against "reason,"
"reason" cannot win against "law,"
"law" cannot win against "power," and
"power" cannot win against "heaven." If we go to
the prisons and check, we will find that not all convicted felons
are irrevocably guilty and unreasonable. Some of them may even have
plausible reasons to justify the crime that they have committed.
However, it does not matter how reasonable one may be, the deed
committed may still be against the law. The law may be just and
fair, but there are certain privileged people who have the power to
manipulate the law. But it does not matter how much power one has,
one can never evade the Law of Cause and Effect. It does not matter
how clever, powerful, or wealthy one is, one will always be subject
to one's own karmic effects under the Law of Cause and Effect. There
is no exception.
C.
Karma gives us hope and a bright future.
Karma
tells us that even if we have done many good deeds, we should not
think too highly of ourselves, because the merits accumulated due to
these good deeds are like a bank account. No matter how much we have
saved, if we keep withdrawing, our account will be empty one day. A
person who has done numerous bad deeds may feel as if heavily
indebted and consider life hopeless. But if he works hard enough,
there will come a day when all the "debts" are paid off. A
person who has broken the law has to serve his sentence in prison.
When his term is finished, he will be free to start a new beginning
again. Karma is like this: it gives people hope. One's future is in
one's own hands, for we are free to decide in which direction we
want to go. Our futures are bright.
D.
Karma means that good begets good and evil begets evil.
You
might think that this sounds fatalistic. It is true that karma
decides our fate and future. However, we are the ones who create our
karma. The karmic effect that we shall experience is dependent on
the karma that we have created. Someone may ask, "Did the
enlightened Sakyamuni Buddha still have evil karma?" The answer
is yes. A person may have committed countless good and evil deeds in
his past lives. However, if he does not allow them to be manifested,
it is as if they do not exist. This is similar to planting seeds in
the soil. If the seeds are not provided with the right conditions
for growth, they will not grow. However, if the right conditions are
provided, they will grow healthily even if there are some weeds
mixed among them. That is to say, we need not overly dwell on evil
karma that we have committed in the past. If we keep planting good
seeds in this life, the seeds of our previous evil karma will not
have the opportunity to grow. Thus, with this clearer understanding
of karma, we can effectively work toward happiness.
II.
The Second Characteristic: Conditioned Genesis
Sakyamuni
Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was enlightened while sitting on
the Diamond Throne underneath the Bodhi tree in Bodhgaya. What truth
did he realize when he was enlightened? He realized the Principle of
Cause and Condition and the truth of Conditioned Genesis. He
realized the principle that all phenomena arise from causes and
conditions and that Conditioned Genesis is an unchangeable truth of
life and the universe. During the forty-nine (some say forty-five)
years in which the Buddha taught the Dharma, he directed his efforts
to elucidating the truth of Conditioned Genesis to others.
Conditioned Genesis is another special characteristic that
distinguishes Buddhism from other religions.
Conditioned
Genesis is based on the Law of Cause and Effect. All existence
arises from causes and conditions. The existence of everything in
the universe is interdependent. Broadly speaking, something as large
as the world and something as small as a speck of dust, a flower, or
a blade of grass, all arise due to causes and conditions. The
Principle of Conditioned Genesis is not something that can be
explained through scholastic erudition. It has to be experienced and
realized through actual practice. Before the Buddha renounced
secular life, he was already very well versed in the philosophy of
the four Vedas, the five sciences, and the philosophies of the
ninety-six religions practiced during that time. After six years of
ascetic practices and meditation, he finally realized the Principle
of Conditioned Genesis and attained Buddhahood.
There
was a Brahman called Sariputra who had practiced Brahmanism for a
long time and had many followers. But he still had not realized the
Truth. One day, Sariputra was walking on a street of Rajagrha and
met Asvajit, one of the Buddha's first five disciples. Asvajit was
deeply influenced by the Buddha's teaching and he always put what
the Buddha taught into practice. Asvajit's demeanor and outward
appearance earned him the respect of people who saw him. Sariputra
asked him respectfully, "Who are you? Who is your teacher? What
does he teach you?"
Asvajit
replied, "All dharmas arise due to causes and conditions, all
dharmas cease due to causes and conditions. Lord Buddha, the great
sramana, always teaches thus."
In
this context, the word "dharmas" signifies everything in
life, all phenomena of the universe. "All dharmas arise due to
causes and conditions" means that every object and phenomenon
in the universe arises because of the coming together of many causes
and conditions. When the causes and conditions are no longer
present, objects and phenomena cease to exist.
After
Sariputra heard this, he was overjoyed. He imparted the good news to
his good friend Maudgalyayana. The two of them, together with their
followers, all went to follow the Buddha. Under the teaching of the
Buddha, Sariputra became the most prominent for his great wisdom
among the Buddha's disciples, while Maudgalyayana became the most
prominent for his supernatural power. Thus, we can see that the
Principle of Cause and Condition is the Truth.
We
can understand the concept of Conditioned Genesis through three
aspects:
A.
Effects arise from causes.
Hetupratyaya
is the Sanskrit word for causes and conditions. Hetu is the primary
cause. Pratyaya is the secondary condition or conditions. Hetu is
the direct force from which the fruit (effect) arises, while
pratyaya is the indirect force. All phenomena of the universe arise
from the coming together of many different causes and conditions. No
phenomena can exist without suitable causes and conditions. This is
what is meant by "dharmas do not arise by themselves." For
example, let us take a soybean. This soybean is a seed, the main
cause. Water, soil, sunlight, air and fertilizer are the necessary
secondary conditions. If these causes and conditions come together
in an appropriate manner, then this seed can germinate, bloom, and
produce fruit. Thus the fruit arises from causes. If we store this
soybean in the granary or place it on gravel, it will always remain
a seed. In the absence of the necessary external conditions, the
seed cannot grow and bear fruit.
From
the viewpoint of time, the societal phenomena of a given period of
time may appear to have little or no connection to the societal
phenomena of a later period. However, if we carefully analyze the
societal phenomena, we soon realize that the society of any period
cannot arise without the existence of the society of the previous
period. Let us take the example of a torch. When the flame from one
torch is passed on to a new torch, the old and the new torches are
two separate entities. However, there is a very subtle relationship
between these two torches. The flame of the new torch is the
continuation of the flame of the old torch. In the flow of time, it
is not possible to find an entity isolated from all other entities.
From
the viewpoint of space, it looks as if one dharma does not have any
relationship with another dharma. However, if we look carefully, we
will see that the relationships of cause and condition exist between
all dharmas. For example, today we have a chance to meet here; this
is an effect. The formation of this effect was brought about by many
different causes and conditions. You invited me to come here to give
a talk, I was free to come, the school is allowing us to use its
facilities, and all of you have the interest to come and listen.
Because these conditions all came together at once, our talk today
can be held successfully. If any one of the above mentioned
conditions were lacking, this talk would not have been possible.
Therefore, the arising of any kind of existence is due to many
causes and conditions.
The
existence of a person also depends on causes and conditions. Even
though we have advanced science and technology and we can invent and
produce objects, we still cannot invent life itself; it still arises
out of causes and conditions. The joining of the father's sperm with
the mother's ovum gives rise to a new life. Human life will then
continue only if the physical needs are met through the various
items provided for by farmers, factory workers, and merchants. As an
analogy, a house is built by placing cement, wood, bricks, and other
construction materials together in the proper manner. The house will
not exist if these components are taken apart. A person is also like
this. If a person's skin, flesh, blood, and bones are separated, the
person will no longer exist. Therefore, all dharmas arise from
causes and conditions.
When
we talk about the formation of life, one question that has prompted
debate since ancient times is, "Which came first—the chicken
or the egg?" If the chicken came first and the egg came later,
then where did the chicken come from? If the egg came first and the
chicken came later, then where did the egg come from? The chicken
and the egg?/FONT>which came first?
Buddhism
does not concern itself with questions such as these regarding which
entity came first. Nor does Buddhism concern itself about a
beginning or an end. Buddhism talks about a "circle." This
"circle" has no beginning or end. This beginninglessness
and endlessness is the Concept of Conditioned Genesis. For example,
which is the first hetupratyaya and which is a later hetupratyaya?
This is something that cannot be determined, because any single
phenomenon arises due to the coming together of many hetupratyayas.
For example, the clock on the wall runs continuously from one
o'clock to twelve o'clock and from twelve o'clock back to one
o'clock. Which is the beginning? Which is the end? This is very
difficult to say, because it has no beginning or end. From this
example we can understand that hetupratyayas are interdependent and
interrelated. "This is, therefore that is; this arises,
therefore that arises; this is not, therefore that is not; this
ceases, therefore that ceases." This verse is the best
definition of Conditioned Genesis.
B.
All phenomena exist in accordance with the truth.
The
Principle of Conditioned Genesis is subtle and complicated. It is
profound and difficult to understand. It cannot be analyzed using
scientific techniques, nor can it be elucidated by the metaphysics
of philosophy. In the Agama sutras, the Buddha said that Conditioned
Genesis is a unique characteristic of Buddhist teaching. It is a
truth of the universe which cannot be found in secular teachings.
Conditioned
Genesis, which says that all phenomena exist in accordance with the
truth, is based on the Law of Cause and Effect. If one plants the
seed of a bean, one will reap beans. If one plants a melon seed, one
will reap melons. A melon seed will not give rise to beans, and a
bean seed will not give rise to melons. A particular cause will give
rise to a particular effect—this is the truth expounded in the Law
of Cause and Effect. Truths of this world must be in accordance with
the conditions of, "it originally was like this, it inevitably
is like this, and it universally is like this." Truth cannot be
modified via debates and need not be described in words. It simply
is. For example, the Buddha said that anything that arises will
cease. From the viewpoint of time, this statement can apply in the
past, present, and future. From the viewpoint of space, this
statement is true in every part of the world. Regardless how
developed we are culturally, how advanced we are technologically, we
cannot escape from the fact that anything which arises will cease.
Any phenomenon that is in contrast with the truth will not come to
pass. This is what is meant when we say, "All phenomena exist
in accordance with the truth."
C.
The arising of existence depends on sunyata.
How
did all the dharmas originate in our universe? According to
Conditioned Genesis, the arising of all dharmas depends on sunyata
(emptiness). Without emptiness, all phenomena will not exist. Why?
Because without emptiness, there can be no existence. Emptiness does
not mean that nothing exists, unlike what we may believe based on
the typical usage of this word. Sunyata is the "nature of
emptiness" of all phenomena. If it were not for the nature of
emptiness, phenomena would never manifest their value and function
of existence. The function of phenomena is the application of
emptiness. Suppose that we wish to construct a house. In addition to
materials such as wood, cement, steel rods, and bricks, we also need
a design, a blueprint, and measurements. Of course most important of
all, we need empty space. Without empty space, no matter how refined
the materials may be, no matter how wonderful the design may be,
this house simply cannot be built. Therefore, when there is
emptiness, events and phenomena can then come to be.
Usually,
when "emptiness" is mentioned, people will become afraid
because they have the misconception that the Buddhist religion
requires people to negate everything. However, according to
Buddhism, "emptiness" is the basis of all bhava
(existence). For example, we are all gathered here today because
there is space. If there were no space, we would not be able to
gather here. Another example of "emptiness" according to
Buddhism is the human body; there is much space in the human body.
One can exist because one's ear is empty, one's nose is empty, one's
mouth is empty and one's digestive system is empty. Now suppose
one's nose is not empty, one's mouth is not empty, and one's
digestive system is not empty, can this person survive? Can life
still exist?
If
there is no space, a house cannot be built. If a bag is not empty,
it cannot hold anything. If the universe is not empty, human life
cannot exist. Thus, there is "existence" only if there is
"emptiness." Without sunyata, all dharmas would not arise
from conditions and thus there would be no arising or ceasing of
anything.
Based
on this phenomenon of existence, in the chapter on the Four Noble
Truths of the Madhyamika Sastra, Nagajuna said, "Because
there is sunyata, all dharmas can arise; if there is no sunyata, all
dharmas cannot arise."
III.
The Third Characteristic: Sunyata
Ordinarily,
people do not understand the concept of sunyata (emptiness). They
generally think that sunyata means nothingness. This is a
misconception. We have already mentioned the phenomenon of
Conditioned Genesis, in which all dharmas arise from causes and
conditions and they cease because of causes and conditions. All
dharmas come into being because of the coming together of the right
causes and conditions; they cease due to the disintegration of the
causes and conditions that were responsible for their formation.
Therefore the nature of all dharmas is emptiness. That is, dharmas
do not have any true self-nature, so they are described as
"empty."
Commonly
people limit their understanding of sunyata to mean "absolute
nothingness," yet consider existence real. According to the
Buddhist teachings, existence—arising due to Conditioned
Genesis—is illusory yet does not preclude emptiness. Similarly,
Sunyata—the nature of all existence is fundamentally empty—means
nonsubstantiality but does not preclude existence. This is the
concept of Conditioned Genesis with nature of emptiness.
I
would like to explain sunyata as follows:
A.
The four great elements are fundamentally empty; the five aggregates
do not have true existence.
Sunyata
is the infinite meaning of Mahayana Buddhism. It is not
"absolute nothingness." It is a constructive and
revolutionary concept. It is used by the Mahayanists to explain the
existence of this world and universe. "The four great elements
are fundamentally empty; the five aggregates do not have true
existence" is how the Buddha explained of the nature of all
events and phenomena of this world and universe after he attained
enlightenment. All dharmas exist due to the coming together of the
four great elements. What are the four great elements? They are
earth, water, fire, and wind. Earth has the property of solidity,
water has the property of humidity, fire has the property of heat,
and wind has the property of mobility. Why do we say that the four
elements of earth, water, fire, and wind are great? Because
everything in this world and universe is formed by these four
elements. For example, a cup is made by firing clay that is
constructed in the shape of a cup. Clay belongs to the earth
element. Water is added to the clay in order to shape the clay into
a cup. The cup is then fired. After being fired, the cup is cooled
and dried by the wind. So, all four great elements are involved in
the formation of this cup.
Similarly,
a human being is also formed by the unity of the four great
elements. For example, our skin, hair, nails, teeth, bones, and
flesh all belong to the earth element. Our blood, saliva, and urine
belong to the liquid element. Our body heat belongs to the fire
element, and our breathing and movement belong to the wind element.
Thus, if any one of these four great elements is out of balance, we
will become ill. If these four great elements disintegrate, we will
no longer exist.
From
these examples, we therefore can see that the physical body is
formed by the combination of the four great elements. Furthermore,
the mind, or the consciousness according to our usual understanding,
is only a combination of the five aggregates—rupa (form), vedana
(feeling), samjna (perception), samskara (mental formation), and
vijnana (consciousness). Life is the result of the combination of
causes and conditions, without a true independent self-nature; a
physical body with consciousness is only an existence due to a
combination of factors. When the uniting force of these causes and
conditions is exhausted, the previously formed combination of these
factors dissolves, and the living being will no longer exist. Where
then is the separate true self? Therefore, the Buddha teaches thus,
"The four great elements are fundamentally empty; the five
aggregates do not have true existence."
Once,
Tung-p'o Su of the Sung Dynasty went to visit Ch'an Master Fo Yin.
When Tung-p'o Su arrived, Ch'an Master Fo Yin was teaching the
Dharma. When the Ch'an Master saw Tung-p'o Su, he said to him,
"Mr. Su, where did you just come from? We do not have a place
for you to sit."
Tung-p'o
Su replied immediately, "Master, if there is no seat, why don't
you lend me your four great elements and five aggregates (your body)
to use as my meditation seat?"
Ch'an
Master Fo Yin said, "I have a question for you. If you can give
me a satisfactory answer, I will let you use me as your seat. If you
cannot give me an answer, then please leave your jade belt behind as
a souvenir. Here is my question: my four great elements are all
empty and my five aggregates do not have true existence. May I ask
where you are going to sit?"
Tung-p'o
Su could not give him an answer. So he took off his jade belt, which
had been presented to him by the emperor, and left.
From
this story we can see that the human body, an illusive combination
of the four great elements and five aggregates, does not have any
true substantial essence for us to attain.
B.
What is sunyata?
In
the Mahayana teaching, the word "sunyata" integrates the
Three Dharma Seals. Sunyata is the Ultimate Truth. It is an
important concept in Buddhism and a special characteristic of
Buddhism that distinguishes it from other worldly teachings.
Most
people do not understand what sunyata means. They think it means
complete nullity and nothingness. This is just not so. Sunyata is,
in fact, a most profound and wonderful philosophy. If one can truly
understand sunyata, one can understand the whole of Buddhism. What,
then, is sunyata? It is simply not possible to explain the meaning
of sunyata in just one sentence. The Treatise That Explains
Mahayana gives ten definitions of sunyata. Although these
definitions cannot thoroughly explain the true meaning of sunyata,
they are very close.
The
ten definitions of sunyata, as explained in this treatise, are as
follows:
-
Sunyata
has the meaning of non-obstruction. Like space, it can be found
everywhere and will not obstruct any material existence.
-
Sunyata
has the meaning of all-pervasiveness. Like space, it is
pervasive and reaches everywhere.
-
Sunyata
has the meaning of equality. Like space, it does not make any
distinctions but treats all equally.
-
Sunyata
has the meaning of vastness. Like space, it is vast, limitless,
and boundless.
-
Sunyata
has the meaning of formlessness. Like space, it has no shape or
form.
-
Sunyata
has the meaning of purity. Like space, it is always pure.
-
Sunyata
has the meaning of motionlessness. Like space, it is always
still, completely beyond any form of arising and decaying.
-
Sunyata
has the meaning of absolute negation. It negates all facts and
theories.
-
Sunyata
has the meaning of emptying sunyata itself. It negates all
concepts of independent self-nature and also destroys all
attachment to the concept of sunyata.
-
Sunyata
has the meaning of unattainability. Like space, it cannot be
attained or held.
Although
these ten definitions cannot entirely describe the truth of sunyata,
nevertheless, together they provide us with a vivid depiction for
better understanding of this important Buddhist teaching.
C.
How can sunyata be perceived?
-
Sunyata
can be perceived through the illusive nature of continuation.
All existence is empty because all phenomena are impermanent.
Just like on the Yangtze River, the waves from behind push the
waves in front; a new generation replaces an older generation.
Time continues without interruption, and worldly events are
always of suffering, emptiness, and impermanence. Through the
continuation of impermanence, we can see emptiness.
-
Sunyata
can be perceived through the illusive nature of cycles. All
dharmas of the universe are governed by the Law of Cause and
Effect. A cause will become an effect, which in turn will become
a cause. For example, when the appropriate amount of sunlight,
air, water, and soil are present, a seed will germinate, bloom,
and produce fruit. The seed is the cause, the fruit is the
effect. When the necessary external conditions are present, the
seeds from the fruit will germinate, bloom, and produce more
fruit. In this case, the fruit, which was the effect, has become
the cause. Through this continuous cycle wherein cause becomes
effect and effect becomes cause, we can see sunyata.
-
Sunyata
can be perceived through the illusive nature of combinations.
All dharmas arise due to the harmonious unity of various causes
and conditions. For example, the human body is made up of the
harmonious unity of skin, flesh, bones, blood, and various
bodily fluids. If the human body is separated into these
components, there will no longer be such existence as an
independent human body. Thus, we can understand sunyata through
Conditioned Genesis.
-
Sunyata
can be perceived through the illusive nature of relativity. All
dharmas of this universe are relative, such as father versus son
and teacher versus student. For example, when a son gets married
and has a son, he himself becomes a father. Likewise, a student
who learns enough can then become a teacher. Thus, all things
are relative and therefore are unreal and empty.
-
Sunyata
can be perceived through the illusive nature of appearance.
There is no set standard or measure for how we view appearance.
For example, light from a candle may appear bright to our eyes,
but when an electric lamp is switched on, the candlelight now
seems dim. Further, the speed of an automobile may seem fast to
us until it is compared to the speed of an airplane. These
examples allow us to realize that the appearance of all events
and all phenomena are viewed by us without a set standard; we
can therefore realize sunyata.
-
Sunyata
can be perceived through the illusive nature of terms. Each
dharma in this universe is called by a different name. These
names are nonsubstantial in nature and thus empty. For example,
a female baby is called a baby girl. When she is grown up, she
is referred to as Miss. When she gets married, she will be
addressed as Mrs. When she has her own children, they will call
her "mother." When she is old and has grandchildren,
she is then known as a grandmother. From a baby girl to
grandmother, she is still the same person, yet her titles are
different. Thus, we can understand sunyata through the
illusiveness of terms.
-
Sunyata
can be perceived through the illusive nature of different
viewpoints. Different people with different states of mind will
have differing views on the same thing or event. For example, on
a snowy night, a poet sitting in front of the window inside a
warm and cozy house hopes that the snow will continue through
the night, so that he can enjoy more beautiful scenery. But, a
beggar shivering in the cold hopes that the snow will stop soon;
otherwise, he will not be able to make it through the night.
Thus, we can understand sunyata through different viewpoints.
IV.
The Fourth Characteristic: The Three Dharma Seals
The
Three Dharma Seals (Three Characteristics of Existence) is an
important doctrine of Buddhism. The Three Dharma Seals can determine
whether a certain Buddhist teaching is the Ultimate Truth. The
"Three Dharma Seals" is like the offical stamp by which we
recognize the authenticity of everyday merchandise. Any doctrine
which is not in accordance with the Three Dharma Seals is not the
complete teaching, even if it was taught by the Buddha. On the other
hand, any doctrine that is in accordance with the Three Dharma Seals
is genuine Dharma, even if it was not personally taught by the
Buddha.
The
Three Dharma Seals are as follows: "All samskaras (composite
things) are impermanent," "All dharmas do not have a
substantial self," and "Nirvana is perfect peace."
The three are used together to prove the genuineness of the Dharma;
therefore, they are called the "Three Dharma Seals."
A.
All samskaras are impermanent.
"All
samskaras" refer to all forms and actions of this world.
According to the doctrine of Buddhism, none of these forms and
actions is permanent. This impermanence can be illustrated by the
following two points:
-
The
"three periods of time" flow continuously without
stopping. This shows that all samskaras are impermanent.
-
All
dharmas arise because of cause and conditions; thus, they are
impermanent.
What
does it mean when we say "the three periods of time" flow
continuously? The "three periods of time" is defined as
time in the past, present, and future. From the viewpoint of time,
all dharmas are impermanent because they do not remain unchanged
even for an instant; they arise and cease within each moment. The
dharmas of the past are already extinct. The dharmas of the future
have not come into being yet. The dharmas of the present become
extinct as soon as they arise. Thus, all dharmas are impermanent.
Why do we say that all dharmas, arising due to cause and condition,
are impermanent? Since all dharmas are formed by the combination and
unity of different causes and conditions, when the necessary causes
and conditions disintegrate, the dharmas will cease to exist. As
causes and conditions are impermanent, any dharma that arises from
causes and conditions is impermanent as well. For example, a person
is reborn due to his past karma. From birth to death and death to
birth, lives perpetually move through past, present, and future.
Life is truly impermanent.
The
functioning of our mind is also impermanent. Our thoughts constantly
rise and cease, changing every moment. Likewise, all dharmas of this
universe also arise and cease from moment to moment. Their existence
is a continuous process. The worldly phenomena of arising,
maintaining, decaying, and destruction, the seasonal change of
spring, summer, autumn, and winter, and life cycle of birth, aging,
sickness, and death, all continue like a flowing river. Nothing ever
remains unchanged in this continuous flux.
We
usually divide human feelings into three types: pleasant feelings,
unpleasant feelings and feelings that are neither pleasant nor
unpleasant. Of course, unpleasant feelings are duhkha (suffering).
However, pleasant feelings are also duhkha, because this is the
suffering of decay. For example, health and beauty will give rise to
pleasant feelings, but the loss of health and beauty can cause
suffering to arise. Feelings that are neither happy nor unhappy
bring us suffering because of change. Examples of this kind of
feeling are those caused by the passing of time, the brevity of
life, and the impermanence of all dharmas. All these perpetual
changes bring people unbearable anguish—this is the suffering of
impermanence. This is why the Buddhist teachings state that because
all samskaras are impermanent, all feelings are duhkha.
B.
All dharmas do not have a substantial self.
Earlier
when we touched on the statement, "All samskaras are
impermanent," we discussed that nothing is permanent from the
viewpoint of time. Now, if we take a look from the viewpoint of
space, nothing can exist independently. We as human beings like to
cling to the "self" and believe that "I," or my
"self," exist—my head, my body, my
thoughts, my parents, my spouse and children. To what
we believe as ourselves, we develop the "clinging to the
self." To objects that we consider as belonging to ourselves,
we develop the "clinging to one's surrounding objects." We
tend to look at this world with "I" as the center of
everything as if nothing would exist without "I." However,
according to the rational, penetrating perspective of the Buddhist
teachings, there is actually no such thing as a permanent and
independent "self." Why? For any entity to be called as
"self," it must fulfill four requirements: this entity
must be permanent, in control, unchanging, and independent.
Let
us now consider the human body, the entity that we tend to think of
as "I." From the moment of birth and continuing for the
several decades in a person's lifetime, the human body is
perpetually undergoing physiological changes of birth and death as
it grows, matures, and ages. How then can it be permanent and
unchanging? Formed through the combination and unity of the four
great elements and five aggregates, the human body comes to be when
the necessary conditions for such unity are present and ceases to
exist when such conditions are no longer present. How then can it be
in control? The human body is where all varieties of suffering
assemble—physiologically there are sufferings of hunger, coldness,
illness, fatigue, et cetera; mentally there are sufferings of anger,
hatred, sorrow, fear, disappointment, et cetera. When the body is
undergoing all these sufferings, it simply cannot break free. How
can it be independent, with sovereignty? Therefore, we can see that
the "self" as we have defined it earlier does not exist.
Hence the Buddhist teachings state that all dharmas do not have a
substantial self.
The
absence of a substantial self, anatman, is the foundation of the
Middle Path; it is the fundamental teaching of Buddhism. The absence
of a substantial self is the unique teaching that differentiates
Buddhism from other religious or philosophical doctrines.
C.
Nirvana is perfect peace.
This
statement means that no matter how chaotic things are in this world,
they will eventually become peaceful. No matter how different things
are, they will eventually become equal in the end. Indeed the state
of Nirvana is peace and equality. According to Buddhism, when the
state of Nirvana is attained, all afflictions and the cycle of birth
and death will be extinguished, there will be no more suffering,
eternal happiness is attained, perfect wisdom is realized, and all
illusions are eradicated. Ordinary people think that Nirvana is
attained only after death. Actually, the definition of Nirvana is
"without birth or death." Nirvana means the extinction of
"clinging"; the elimination of atma-graha (holding on to
the concept of the self) and Dharma-graha (holding on to the concept
that things are real); and the eradication of the obstacles of
defilement and the riddance of the hindrance of knowledge. It means
putting an end to the cycle of birth and death. Nirvana is
liberation. Defilement is bondage. A criminal, chained by shackles,
has lost his freedom. Likewise, living beings are bound by the
chains of greed, hatred, and delusion. If living beings practice the
Dharma and put an end to these defilements, they will all be
liberated and thus attain Nirvana. Other than going through this
process, Nirvana is not to be found in any other way.
During
the Buddha's time, the Buddha's disciples traveled to different
places to teach the Dharma after they had attained Nirvana. From
their example, we can understand that Nirvana is not something that
can be attained outside of dharmas. All dharmas are originally
Nirvana. However, since the minds of living beings are obscured by
ignorance, by delusion and clinging, and by thinking that the
"self" and the dharmas have a substantial existence which
can be attained, they encounter obstacles, hindrances, and bondage
everywhere they go. If we can be like the Buddhist sages who
understand that all things arise due to Conditioned Genesis, then
even though we still exist in this world, we can realize that all
existence is ever changing and lacks a true self-nature. We will no
longer be attached; wherever we are we will then be liberated.
Liberation is Nirvana.
Some
people say that life is like an ocean in which there is perpetual
motion, with waves coming one after the other. The continuous
movement of the ocean exemplifies the impermanence of the samskaras.
If we can look at the waves through the eyes of the Buddhist sages,
we then soon realize that although the waves are turbulent, the
nature of water is always calm. Likewise, life is an endless cycle
of birth and death, but the real self-nature is always in perfect
peace. Thus, if we want to attain the liberation of Nirvana, we have
to realize it through the impermanence of all samskaras and the
nonsubstantiality of all dharmas. It is not possible to find the
state of perfect peace of Nirvana apart from impermanence and
nonsubstantiality.
Today
I have introduced you to the four unique characteristics of
Buddhism. I hope this lecture has deepened your insight into
Buddhism and that it will serve as a stepping stone for your further
investigation of Buddhism. May everyone enjoy good health of body
and mind, happiness, and success!
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